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| DCW69 |
 Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:00 am |
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Location: Wexford, Pennslyvania
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Uses of the Colon
A colon is used to introduce a list. It can be a formal introduction using, as follows, or less formal.
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The ceremony to honor Dr. Mills included everything: a moving introduction, a recitation of her achievements, a series of testimonials, and a stirring forecast of her future in the new position.
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The questions were as follows: Where did you last work? For how long? What was your job title? What were your primary achievements?
As follows and following are clear indications that a colon is appropriate, but as the first example shows, these formal introductory elements aren't required. Also, use a lower-case letter after the colon unless your list is made up of complete statements, as in the second example.
Introducing a quotation or formal statement
The colon is used to introduce a quotation or formal statement. An independent clause must precede the colon. The statement following the colon begins with a capital letter.
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Remember this: Don't waste time, don't waste money, but—most important of all—don't waste your energies and talents.
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The speaker made the following observation:“In the future, communication between people all over the world will lead not to an enriched culture but to a homogenous one.”
Introducing a restatement or explanation
A colon may be used between two independent clauses when the second clause explains or restates the first clause.
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The program was an unqualified success: hundreds of people attended.
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These shoes are the best: they are durable, inexpensive, and stylish.
Notice that when the colon is used in this way, it may be followed by a lower-case letter, just as a semicolon would be.
To test whether you should use a semicolon or a colon between clauses, ask yourself whether you could insert the phrase that is after the mark. If you can, use a colon; if you can't, use a semicolon.
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These shoes are the best: that is, they are durable, inexpensive, and stylish. (yes)
A colon is appropriate in the previous example. The phrase can be inserted here. The second clause explains the first clause. The phrase that is doesn't work in the next sentence. A semicolon is appropriate.
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He struggled for years; that is, success finally arrived. (no)
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He struggled for years; success finally arrived. (yes)
Colons with quotation marks
Follow this rule when using quotes in a sentence: always place colons outside quotation marks.
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The article was called “The Last Word”: it was his definitive statement.
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This statement is from an article called “Good Advice”: “Before you decide to marry a man, check out his relationship with his mother.”
Miscellaneous uses of the colon
You also need to learn some special cases for using a colon. A colon is used in the following situations:
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To separate hours and minutes when writing the time
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4:15 p.m.
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8:00 a.m.
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To separate volume and number, or volume and page number of a magazine
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Entertainment Weekly VI:4
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Newsweek 87:53-56
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To separate chapter and verse numbers for biblical passages
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Matthew 4:16
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To introduce a subtitle
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Jane Austen: A Feminist's View
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To end the salutation of a business letter
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Dear Dr. Aguinaldo: |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:00 am |
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Problems with Colons
Don't use a colon to separate sentence elements that belong together, such as an action verb from its objects or a linking verb from its complements.
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The university sent us catalogues, maps, housing applications, and transportation information.
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not The university sent us: catalogues, maps, housing applications, and transportation information.
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The four things I want are success in business, a happy marriage, creative fulfillment, and peace of mind.
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not The four things I want are: success in business, a happy marriage, creative fulfillment, and peace of mind. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:01 am |
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Uses of the Dash
Think of the dash as indicating an interruption you want to draw attention to. Other punctuation marks—commas and parentheses—serve similar purposes. Commas are more neutral, and parentheses are usually used with information that is clearly incidental.
Interrupting a sentence
If you want to interrupt your sentence with a phrase or clause, consider using a dash, or if your sentence continues after the interruption, a pair of dashes.
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She was extraordinarily tall—the tallest woman I'd ever seen.
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She walked in— the tallest woman I'd ever seen—and took a seat at the counter.
Introducing a restatement or explanation
Like a colon, a dash can be used to introduce an explanation or restatement in place of expressions such as that is, in other words, or namely. Begin the clause after the dash with a lower-case letter.
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The reporter relentlessly pursued the woman— he was determined to get her to respond.
Although the colon and dash are frequently interchangeable in this function, the dash is less formal.
Dashes with commas
When you use dashes to set off interrupting elements in a sentence, omit commas.
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She saw her sisters— all five of them—standing in front of the building.
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NOT She saw her sisters,— all five of them—, standing in front of the building.
Dashes with quotation marks
If a dash is not part of the quoted material, put it outside the quotation marks. Omit commas.
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“He wants the money” —I paused for effect—“and he wants it now.”
A dash can be used to indicate unfinished dialogue. Put the dash within the quotation marks and omit commas or periods.
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“ Help! Help! I can't seem to—” She fell to the ground, gasping for breath. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:01 am |
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Location: Wexford, Pennslyvania
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Problems with Dashes
If you like dashes, you'll be tempted to use them too often. Remember that they are more noticeable than commas. Then remember a basic rule: Don't let a punctuation mark become a distraction.
When you type, don't confuse a dash with a hyphen. A dash is typed with two hyphens, no space between them, or typed as a dash with a word processor.
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Ms. Persinger– the most important official in the–okayed the plan.
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OR Ms. Persinger— the most important official in the city— okayed the plan. (better)
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NOT Ms. Persinger- the most important official in the city-okayed the plan. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:02 am |
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Joined: 15 Jul 2008
Posts: 725
Location: Wexford, Pennslyvania
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Uses of Parentheses
Parentheses are a pair of signs helpful in marking off text. You use parentheses in specific situations that can be covered by a few simple rules.
Setting off incidental information
Parentheses are used to enclose incidental information, such as a passing comment, a minor example or addition, or a brief explanation. As with the dash, the decision to use parentheses is your judgment call. Sometimes commas or dashes might be a better choice.
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Some of the local store owners (Mr. Kwan and Ms. Lawson, for example) insisted that the street be widened,
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OR Some of the local store owners— Mr. Kwan and Ms. Lawson, for example—insisted that the street be widened.
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Roger Worthington ( a poorly drawn character in the novel) reveals the secret in the last chapter.
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OR Roger Worthington, a poorly drawn character in the novel, reveals the secret in the last chapter.
Other punctuation marks with parentheses
Don't put any punctuation mark before parentheses, and put a comma after the closing parenthesis only if your sentence would call for the comma anyway.
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Use a pointed stick (a pencil with the lead point broken off works well) or a similar tool.
No comma appears before or after the parentheses. If you were to remove the parenthetical remark, the remaining sentence would not need a comma: Use a pointed stick or a similar tool.
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Banging the wall and screaming (unrestrained by his father, I might add), Sam was acting like a brat.
In the preceding sentence, no comma appears before the parentheses. A comma follows the parentheses because if you were to remove the parenthetical comment, the remaining sentence would require a comma: Banging the wall and screaming, Sam was acting like a brat.
Punctuation within parentheses
If your parentheses enclose a sentence-within-a-sentence, don't use a period within the parentheses. Do, however, use a question mark or an exclamation point if it is called for.
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Mother love (hers was fierce) ruined the young boy's life.
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They finally said (why couldn't they have admitted it earlier?) that she had been there.
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The wedding reception (what a fiasco!) ended abruptly.
If the parentheses enclose a complete sentence that stands alone, keep the period within the parentheses.
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(Her father was the only one who didn't attend.)
Miscellaneous uses of parentheses
You'll need to learn how to use parentheses in special situations. For example, use parentheses to enclose a date or a citation.
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Sir William Walton (1902–1983) composed the oratorio Belshazzar's Feast.
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According to the reports of her contemporaries, she was a mediocre critic and a worse artist (Travis, 26–62).
In scientific, business, or legal writing, parentheses are used to restate a number. Be sure this use is justified. In most prose, it is not, and it creates an inappropriately official tone.
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The bill is due and payable in thirty (30) days. (acceptable)
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My grandfather knew my grandmother for sixty (60) years. (not appropriate)
When to use brackets
Brackets are a special case and are used in specific situations. Use brackets to insert something into a sentence that is already in parentheses.
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(Don't forget, however, that the joints will be filled with grout [see page 46].)
Also use brackets when you want to insert an explanatory word or note within a quotation.
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“Mel [Gibson] is one of my best customers,” the street vendor bragged. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:02 am |
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Location: Wexford, Pennslyvania
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Problems with Parentheses
Like dashes, parentheses are punctuation marks with high visibility, so don't overuse them. If you find yourself putting much information in parentheses, check the way you have organized your material. Generally, your writing should be straightforward, not filled with asides or passing comments. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:02 am |
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Location: Wexford, Pennslyvania
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Uses of Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are used to indicate the beginning and end of a quote. They tell the reader when you've used written material from other sources or direct speech.
Direct quotations
A direct quotation is when you've used an item verbatim from another text. Use quotation marks at the beginning and end of a direct quotation.
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“ You are the last person on earth I'd ask,” she told him.
When you are incorporating a short quotation into a paper or thesis, use quotation marks and quote the material exactly.
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As film critic Pauline Kael writes, “ At his greatest, Jean Renoir expresses the beauty in our common humanity—the desires and hopes, the absurdities and follies, that we all, to one degree or another, share.”
In a double-spaced paper, indent and single space quotations longer than five typed lines.
Quotations within quotations
Use single quotation marks within double ones to indicate a quotation within a quotation.
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“ My father began by saying, ‘I refuse to listen to any excuses,’” he told the psychiatrist.
If you are indenting and single spacing a quoted passage, however, use the same marks that appear in the passage. In the following example, the writer is quoting a passage from the critic Martin Esslin who in turn is quoting the playwright Ionesco.
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Martin Esslin describes Ionesco's attitude towards spontaneity in this passage:
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Ionesco regards spontaneity as an important creative element. “ I have no ideas before I write a play. I have them when I have written the play or while I am not writing at all. I believe that artistic creation is spontaneous. It certainly is so for me.” But this does not mean that he considers his writing to be meaningless or without significance. On the contrary, the workings of the spontaneous imagination are a cognitive process, an exploration.
Miscellaneous uses of quotation marks
Except to indicate direct quotations, use quotation marks sparingly. However, there are a few other possible uses of quotation marks.
Distancing yourself from an offensive term or expression.
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The disappointed body builder blamed the “fat slobs” who judged the contest.
Referring to a word as a word.
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He used the term “ irregardless,” not realizing that no such word exists.
Indicating a nickname written as part of a formal name.
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Ray “ Shorty” Johannsen was the men's unanimous choice for chairman.
Setting off titles of poems, essays, and articles that are part of a longer work. (For this use, as for bibliographical and footnote information, check to see whether you are required to use a particular style guide for what you are writing.)
A summary of the rules
One of the biggest problems with quotation marks is knowing whether another mark, such as a period or comma, goes inside or outside the quotation marks. Following is a summary of the rules:
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Put periods and commas inside quotation marks, whether or not they are part of the quotation.
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Put question marks, exclamation points, and dashes inside quotation marks if they are part of the quotation, outside the quotation marks if they are not.
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Put colons and semicolons outside quotation marks.
For examples, look under the individual punctuation marks covered in this section.
Using an ellipsis
An ellipsis indicates an omission from a quotation. This mark consists of spaced periods.
A three-dot ellipsis indicates that you are omitting something from a sentence that continues after the ellipsis.
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He writes, “ The wise collector should probably just bite the bullet … and acquire both paintings.”
The phrase “or mortgage the house” has been omitted from this quotation.
Use four dots if you are omitting the last part of a quoted sentence that ends in a period but what remains is still a complete thought. The first dot comes immediately after the sentence and has no space before it. It functions as a period. The following three dots are spaced and indicate that material has been omitted. If the original sentence ended in a question mark or exclamation point, substitute that mark for the first dot.
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The author advises, “ In analyzing nonverbal signals, look at the total pattern of behavior rather than just one symbol….”
The phrase “before making a decision,” which ended the sentence, has been omitted from this quotation.
You can also use the four-dot ellipsis whenever your quotation skips material and then goes on to a new sentence. But make sure that your four-dot ellipsis has an independent clause on each side of it. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:02 am |
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Location: Wexford, Pennslyvania
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Problems with Quotation Marks
Aside from understanding how to use other punctuation marks with quotation marks, you shouldn't have much difficulty—if you keep one thing in mind. Reserve quotation marks for direct quotations and for the other uses indicated above. Don't use quotation marks around the title of your paper. Don't use them to signal—and somehow justify—the use of clichés or slang expressions. Don't use them to indicate that you are being clever or cute. In fact, don't use them to call attention to your tone at all unless you find it absolutely necessary to do so. You must be the judge, and you must be a harsh one. A piece of writing peppered with questionable quotation marks indicates an amateurish style. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:03 am |
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Location: Wexford, Pennslyvania
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ntroducing Idioms and Clichés
As a writer, you must choose your language carefully. Unclear or careless language affects your ability to communicate. It is important for you to recognize words or expressions that weaken your message in order to avoid them in your writing.
Idioms are expressions that do not have a literal meaning, but establish their connotation by the way they are used in speech. Clichés are expressions that are so commonly used they fail to impart any real impact on your sentence. Jargon is the specialized, often technical, language of a particular field or profession. Slang is the informal language of conversation, which includes contractions, faddish language, and other casual language. Euphemisms are mild or softer words or phrases used to blunt the effect of more direct or unpleasant words or phrases. If you know when to use or avoid these expressions, your writing will be more effective. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:04 am |
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Location: Wexford, Pennslyvania
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The Idiom
An idiom is an accepted phrase or expression that doesn't follow the usual patterns of the language or that has a meaning other than the literal. Phrases that, when dissected, don't seem to make much sense, are often idiomatic. For example, when you read “They can't come up with the answer,” or “The director stood up for herself,” or “They promise to drop you a line,” you know what the writer means. But if you look up each word in one of these expressions, the meaning of the expression as a whole isn't obvious.
Idioms aren't something you memorize; it would take you a lifetime. If English is your native language, you've already learned thousands of them naturally so that you don't need to question what they mean—or how they mean what they mean. But when you try to learn the idioms of another language, or when you ask someone who is trying to learn English, you find that idioms can be a real challenge.
Figurative idioms
Figurative idioms are expressions so common you don't question their source: let the cat out of the bag; he has a monkey on his back; it's the straw that broke the camel's back; you're splitting hairs; the ball's in your court; etc. Many figurative idioms have become clichés. You can use them occasionally, when they do a job for you—but don't overuse them. Also, be sure you know what they mean and that you use them correctly. Don't make the mistake of the real-estate agent who told her client, “ The monkey's in your court now.”
Prepositional idioms
The most common idiom is an expression that depends on the choice of a particular preposition. The choice may seem arbitrary. For example, why do we say “She put up with him” rather than “She put on with him”? “At home” rather than “ in home”? Why is it “sick of him” rather than “sick from him”? No logical reason—the expressions are idiomatic. Notice in addition that many words take different prepositions to form different idioms. For example to wait on someone is different from to wait for someone.
Prepositional idioms don't follow rules you can memorize. Fortunately, you don't need rules. You can usually rely on your own ear and your own experience. When you're in doubt about the right preposition for an expression, check a good dictionary. The entry for a word sometimes gives you a phrase showing which preposition to use. When the word is associated with several idioms, they are often listed at the end of the entry. For example, after definitions of come in Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary, you'll find a list of idioms and their meanings: to come about, to come across, to come along, to come around, to come between, etc.
Selected list of prepositional idioms
Although far from complete, this list illustrates the importance of prepositions in forming idioms.
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accompanied by (in the company of)—The reporter was accompanied by his lawyer.
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accompanied with (linked with)—Martinez accompanied his speech with a series of photographs.
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accountable for (responsible for)—I am accountable for the errors in the book.
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accountable to (answerable to someone)—I am accountable to the board of directors.
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accuse of ( not with)—He accused the speaker of lying.
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adapt from (a model)—He adapted the design from one he had seen in Europe.
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adapt to (a situation, an environment)—The children soon adapted to the new school.
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admit of (allow)—The conflict doesn't admit of an easy resolution.
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admit to, into (a place, a group)—He was admitted into the secret organization.
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admit to (confess)—Dr. Allan admitted to having sent the card.
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agree on or upon (something)—We agreed on a date for the meeting.
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agree to (do something)—We agree to pay the damages.
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agree with (people, opinions)—The women who were polled agreed with the judge.
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analogous to (something similar)—Their marriage is analogous to a war that no one wins.
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angry at (things)—We're angry at the lack of attention the proposal received.
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angry with (people)—We're angry with the people who lied to us about their support.
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annoyed at or with (a person)—The doctor was annoyed at her nurse for the interruption.
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annoyed by (something)—The doctor was annoyed by the constant interruptions.
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apprehensive for (concerned for)—They are apprehensive for the stranded travelers.
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apprehensive of (a danger)—The townspeople are apprehensive of the approaching storm.
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assist at (an event)—He assisted at the service.
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assist with (someone or something)—Mr. Nguyen assisted with the refreshments and the flowers.
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based on ( not in)—The decision was based on our experience with the media.
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bored by, with ( not of)—He was bored by their speeches and bored with his job.
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comply with ( not to)— If you comply with the rules, you'll be accepted.
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contend for (a position, a prize)—The candidates have contended for the office twice.
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contend with (an obstacle)—The candidate has to contend with his lack of personal charm.
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defect in (things)—The defect in the system was its inflexibility.
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defect of (people, qualities)—A defect of conscience caused his action.
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depart for ( not to, a destination)—They depart for England tomorrow.
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depart from (a destination, a tradition)—They departed from their routine today.
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differ from (something)—The first version differs from the second.
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differ with (someone)—I differ with you on that issue.
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end in (a state, a feeling)—The relationship ended in sorrow.
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end with (something)—I think the world will end with a bang, not a whimper.
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enter into (an agreement)—We entered into the alliance filled with hope. (Compare enter meaning to go into, which takes no preposition: We entered the room.)
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fired from ( not off of, a job)—He was fired from his job on Friday.
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grateful for (a benefit)—I am grateful for my musical talent.
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grateful to (a person)—I am grateful to you for the help.
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impatient at (a delay)—They were impatient at having to wait so long.
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impatient for (a result)—We are impatient for an answer from the administration.
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impatient with (a person)—He was impatient with the clerk.
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intervene in (a dispute)—I intervened in the fight.
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intervene between (the disputants)—I intervened between them before they came to blows.
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invest in (something or someone)—We invested our hopes in the new leader.
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invest with (a quality)—He invested her with every virtue.
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mastery of (a subject)—She demonstrated her mastery of mathematics.
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mastery over (a person)—She demonstrated her mastery over her opponent.
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part from (leave)—I parted from the group early this year.
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part with (a possession)—I parted with the Rolls Royce reluctantly.
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reconcile to (an outcome)—They reconciled themselves to failure.
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reconcile with (a person)—He reconciled with his parents after they talked.
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suspect of ( not with)—I am suspected of shoplifting.
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true to (form; a person; a belief)—They are true to their principles.
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true with (an edge, a line)—This metal plate should be true with the threshold. |
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| DCW69 |
| Posted: Thu Aug 14, 2008 5:07 am |
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The Cliché
Clichés are trite, overused expressions, many of which rely on figurative language. In the beginning, no expression is a cliché; it's a fresh way of saying something. Pretty as a picture, old as the hills, and smart as a whip were once, hard as it is to believe, new and exciting comparisons, but through overuse, they've become tiresome, and most writers know enough to avoid them. Notice, however, that less obvious examples turn up frequently in newspapers, in magazines, or on television. For example, someone may be following his dream, while someone else may be trying to burst his bubble. Sometimes what you see is what you get, but other times you meet people who have a hidden agenda. Watch out for real-life superheroes, unsung heroes, human dynamos, living legends, people who push the panic button, people who live in glass houses, and even the man in the street.
Other types of overused phrases. Along with stale figures of speech are phrases that have been used so often they are clichés: agonizing reappraisal, contributing factor, first and foremost, grave danger, grieving widow, grisly murder, in the final analysis, integral part, once and for all, one step closer, the be-all and end-all, tried and true, vital role, unforeseen obstacles, and so on. Faddish words also quickly become overused, so beware of them.
Mixing clichés
A television newswoman described a man as having signed his own death knell. Her error illustrates what can happen to a cliché. The newswoman no doubt meant signed his own death warrant, an overused expression that means to cause one's own destruction through a particular act. But she confused that expression with another, sounding the death knell, which means to announce the end of something, or, by extension, to cause the end of something, as in “Cutting off the funds sounded the death knell for the struggling program.” Literally, a knell is the sound of a bell ringing slowly, as at a funeral. Obviously, you don't sign a knell.
What happened here was that the newswoman grabbed a familiar phrase and used it without being sure of its meaning or, worse, without caring about its meaning. clichés invite writers and speakers to use them in what is a knee-jerk reaction. Lack of awareness—frequently the villain in bad writing—leads to mistakes. Sometimes the mistakes are funny, as in “He really gets my dandruff up” instead of “He really gets my dander up.” ( Dander means anger or temper, the expression to get one's dander up means to lose one's temper, become enraged.)
Avoiding clichés
Before you use any expression or description that sounds familiar to you, think about it carefully. Is there a better way to say what you want to say? Would it be better simply to use literal language than to rely on an expression that is old hat? He was enraged, rather than he was hopping mad or mad as a wet hen, for example? But whatever you do, don't use a cliché and then apologize for it, for example, Pardon my use of the cliché, but it's true that all that glitters is not gold. The apology does nothing but draw attention to the tired expression.
Using clichés in new ways
Finally, sometimes clichés get new life with a witty turn or a surprising application. For example, the actress Tallulah Bankhead twisted a standard expression when she said, “There is less to this than meets the eye,” and H. Rap Brown did it with his line “Violence is as American as cherry pie.” If you can use a trite expression or cliché in a new, surprising way, you are overcoming the predictability that is its stock in trade. But, as with all attempts at cleverness, be sure that you're achieving the effect you want and not just making a bad joke. |
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